Mandatory disclaimers

(1) Because people who have seen the code can’t say anything about it, and people who can freely comment on it have never seen the actual code, all we can do here is to speculate, speculate, and to speculate. Therefore, here is not an answer, just a speculation.

(2) This is not the typical way I write C++ because most of the projects I work on allows exceptions, at least on a local basis (i.e. not crossing application boundaries), and the coding standard ensures that there are always appropriate exception catchers in the right place. This answer was written as if it is an interesting thought, not as a sharing of experience.

My opinion is that to avoid the issue of partially constructed object (or, “state”), one must first fundamentally change the way parameter (precondition) validation is performed.

The change is this: instead of validating and assigning parameters one-by-one, one must perform the complete validation of all parameters together, in a side-effect-free manner.

In addition to that change, the role of class constructor is also changed. Instead of handling both precondition validation and state initialization, it will “outsource” both to someone else; it will only retain the part of responsibilities that are “failproof” (not capable of failing).

For example, assigning a primitive value (e.g. integer) to a primitive variable is failproof, provided that the primitive variable has valid storage. Another example is the ownership-transfer of a pointer from one smart variable to another.

Some of the biggest advances of C++11 is that smart pointers (and many other things) are moving toward making at least some of the operations “failproof”, by giving the option of isolating those “failable” (having the potential of failing) operations into separate methods.

Ultimately, however I must say, the “no exceptions” rule is sometimes impractical for at least some types of application development. How else would one prevent std::bad_alloc without exceptions? Should the system crash-and-burn?

Mission-critical systems prevent out-of-memory issues by ensuring system-wide determinism in memory usage. Everything is preallocated; objects are merely placement-newed on allocators. There is a maximum number of instances prescribed for each type of objects; attempt to exceed the maximum will either be rejected, or result in the yanking of another less-important, not-actively-in-use object.

This, may be why we keep hearing those memes about “this enemy tracking system is capable of simultaneously tracking 256 different objects.” When a 257th object wants to be added to the system, one of the least-important object must go. Since none of us commenting here have seen any of the code, this is just a speculation.

Default c++ constructors should be avoided if that means leaving object in a partially constructed place. This is obvious a good advice but things get complicated when you also disallow exceptions (as it does)

Not necessarily. Consider these rules:

• a constructor should receive already validated arguments, and perform no operations outside of initializations/movement of values (constructor’s responsibility is to initialize the object, not to compute values, then initialize the object – that would break SRP).

• if an object’s construction is non-trivial, computational part should be moved into a factory function

Example implementation:

class A {
public:
    A() = deleted; // no way to construct instance that completely initializes A

    // int Init(); // don't use two-phased construction; it imposes on client code

    A(B* b, C* c) : b_{ b }, c_{ c } {}

private:
    B* b_;
    C* c_;
};

enum result { success, error };

// return error code
result make_A(B_and_Q_store& store, A*& instance)
{
    B * b = store.buy_a_b();
    C * c = store.get_q().make_a_c();
    if(!C)              // ERROR HANDLING
        return error;   // ERROR HANDLING
    instance = new A{ b, c };
    return success;
}

Client code:

A* a = nullptr;
if(success == make_A(some_store, a)) // ERROR HANDLING
{
    // ...
}

This implementation offers convenience and good design for client code:

• make_A performs failable computations;

• constructor contains only trivial code;

• law of demeter is respected: because an instance of A only uses B and C, it shouldn’t know (or depend on) how B and C are constructed (because it is no longer responsible for instantiating them).

Similar to what @rwong states (when he mentions side effects and validation), parameter/argument values are validated as necessary, before you create the A instance (that is, when you get to creating the instance, you already know all parameter values are valid).

One way to handle these is to have factory functions:

expected<Missile> Missile::Create(Params...)
expected<unique_ptr<Missile>> Missile::Create(Params...)

class Missile {
  private:
   Missile() = default;
   int Initialize(int power) // second phase constructor {
     // other operations (besides out_of_memory) that may fail
     // can be reported from this function
     expected<PowerSupply> expectedPower = PowerSupply::Create(power);
     if (!expectedPower.valid()) {
       return expectedPower.get_error();
     }
     this->power = std::move(expectedPower); // from now on power.valid() true
     return SUCCESS;

  public:
  static expected<Missile> Missile::Create(int p) {
    // 1. call default constructor first, this is automatic
    // storage so no fail
    // 2. Initialize called. 
    // If failure - report expected<Missile>::from_error(Initialize_STATUS);
    Missile m;
    auto status = m.Initialize(p);
    if (status != 0) return expected<Missile>::from_error(status);
    return Missile; // implicit conversion from T to expected<T>
  }
  static expected<unique_ptr<Missile>> Missile::Create(int p) {
    // 1. use operator new to construct - may fail -> expected::from_error(OUT_OF_MEMMORY)
    // 2. call Initialize and possibly report second phase errors
  }

  private:
  int power;
  expected<PowerSupply> power;
}

This is cleaner than using out parameters and a complex object is able (using 2 phases) to build it’s dependencies, be it as automatic variable or free store allocated.

Class expected default constructor only allocates automatic storage for T. One can create an initialized expected instance by assigning a T instance to expected<T>